“The numinous experience of the individuation process is, on the archaic level, the prerogative of shamans and medicine men; later, of the physician, prophet, and priest; and finally, at the civilized stage, of philosophy and religion. The shaman’s experience of sickness, torture, death, and regeneration implies, at a higher level, the idea of being made whole through sacrifice, of being changed by transubstantiation and exalted to the pneumatic man–in a word, of apotheosis.”
“… the individuation process develops a symbolism whose nearest affinities are to be found in folklore, in Gnostic, alchemical, and suchlike ‘mystical’ conceptions, not to mention shamanism.”
Recent discussions with Kimia Maleki led us to plan a course on “Symbols and Shamans,” and that led me to research shamanism. I had read that Jung’s translator, R.F.C. Hull had come away from reading Jung’s Red Book feeling Jung was a shaman. How so? What might have induced Hull to arrive at this conclusion? In this essay I will first define the term “shaman,” then offer some features or qualities of the shaman, and relate these to Jung and his work.
Definitions of “Shaman”
The word shaman is from the Tungus saman, to refer to a person who had the role of “priest or medicine man of certain Ural-Altaic tribes of northern Asia.” Anthropologists and others have expanded the geographic usage to speak, for example, of medicine men among certain American Indian tribes.
Jung reflected this expanded range when he referred to the “shaman” as the “medicine-man or conjurer of spirits” who was the “most important figure” in the religion of American Indians. The geographer Daniel Gade defined the shaman as “he who knows. The ethnopsychologist Holger Kalweit defines shamans as “supernormal or paranormal people who, through their voluntary exposure to tremendous hardships and great dangers, have catapulted themselves into the world of the superconscious…. the classic investigator of the realm of death… a messenger between two worlds…. a hero who overcomes supernatural dangers…. a master of death…. [who has] access to a trancelike and holistic form of awareness.” Daniel Noel makes a distinction between shamans and medicine-men and trance mediums: the shaman “makes journeys into other worlds in search of ‘miraculous solutions to human problems’.”
Features of Shamans
The definitions above have given us some features, e.g shamans have healing abilities, spiritual abilities, skills that exceed the range of the normal, and a willingness to experience pain and dangers in exposing themselves to the superconscious world. While most people have some measure of curiosity, the shaman takes this trait to the extreme of investigating Hades, the realm of Pluto and death. In their holistic orientation to reality and their experience of trances, shamans are familiar with the “imaginal realm,” that intermediate world “between mind and matter, i.e. a psychic realm of subtle bodies whose characteristic is to manifest themselves in a mental as well as a material form.” As Daniel Noel noted, shamans undertake mental “journeys” often for pragmatic reasons, in efforts to solve the practical problems of their tribe.
Noel also identified eight other features of shamans that help us understand why both he and R.F.C. Hull felt Jung was a shaman. These eight are:
Mediation. Shamans operate in the “between,” in the imaginal realm (between the imaginative and the material worlds), as well as between the present and the past, and the present and the future (which is how they can forecast coming events). Aware of how the past can inform (lit. “give form to”) the future, shamans often are “memory holders” for their tribe. Valuing past, present and future, shamans “cultivate wisdom as part of their quest.”
Isolation. From the above list of features, it is obvious that shamans don’t live as most people do; even within their tribe they are “odd man/woman out.” They “dance to their own (inner) drummer,” and so live a reality that is beyond what their fellows experience. In Jungian parlance, we would label shamans as Introverted in type: comfortable in solitude, working often in ways or realms beyond anything their families or friends could fathom, and handling knowledge so specialized that it requires years of training to acquire.
Apprenticeship. The shaman’s knowledge is esoteric but not in any sort of book-learning head-trip way. Rather it is experiential, based on many years of deep relationship with an older shaman who teaches skills, demonstrates a variety of techniques, passes on generations of wisdom about the natural world, and, at times, accompanies the younger shaman on journeys (both physical and imaginal). The “curriculum” encompasses a much broader range than a college course: healing processes, rituals, the use of amulets, chantings, and the mythologies and wisdom traditions of the tribe are taught by example and practice in real-life situations.
Marginality. Very little of this “curriculum” in part of mainstream daily life, so the shaman lives more on the margins. His/her role is recognized by the other members of the tribe but, by its very nature and the long-term training it requires, it sets the shaman apart. As “offbeat individuals,” shamans are generally left to do their own thing, and often their uniqueness is noticed early in life. Far more frequently than is the case in our modern society, indigenous people observe the character traits of young children and respect the child’s natural talents, inclinations and interests.
Self-selection. No one “appoints” another as a shaman. From an early age the curiosity and personality of the child sets him/her apart in the tribe as being destined for the role of shaman. It is more of a vocation than a job: the isolation, pain, challenges, and marginality are endured because the soul of the individual chose the shaman’s path from before birth, and both the shaman and others in the tribe recognize this. To borrow a term from sociology, we could describe the shaman as “inner-directed.”
Neurosis/psychosis. Given the list of features above, it is not surprising that most shamans would be what psychologists would label as “neurotic” or even “psychotic.” They certainly are not “normal” (whatever that means): they don’t “fit in,” nor do they want to fit in. Neither conformity nor popularity nor normality suit them. Their range of paranormal experiences can create the inner conflicts that can produce neuroses, and their common journeys into fantastical realms skirt close to the boundaries of madness. Few others, even in their own tribe, are likely to share such experiences or even begin to understand them. But along with the isolation, pain, dangers and marginalized status–all negatives the shaman must endure–there are rewards, one of which is perspicacity.
Peaks of insight. Shamans have the talent of seeing through surface appearances to spot what is really going on within a person, or a situation in the tribe. They also enjoy times of ecstasy, especially during their trance journeys, when they experience flights of fantasy and contacts with higher realms of energy. These ineffable moments are one form of reward for the sacrifices the shaman makes in service to his/her tribe. These “peak experiences” can foster the shaman’s creativity and provide the tribe with useful solutions to practical problems.
Mental imagery. In addition to perspicacity, shamans have strong imaginations. They can picture a situation or outcome, and then use that image to create a solution or resolve disputes. With their keen imagination, they can shift into the “between” state which Henri Corbin termed the “imaginal realm.” This then permits the shaman to transcend the limitations of the “consensus trance” of our conventional world, and achieve healings or solutions way out of the ordinary.
Veneration. A key feature undergirding all the above is the reverential attitude the shaman manifests in his/her interactions with Nature and the living beings (including humans) that inhabit the world. In shamanic practice, this can take the form of cherishing the powers of amulets, particular plants or the dispositions of various animals. Certain drums, rattles, feathers and other objects have mana, and are respected for this. More broadly, this veneration shows up as the shaman’s awareness of the sacredness of pachamama, Mother Earth, and all her wisdom, with the shaman often becoming the spokesperson of his/her tribe against the depredations of Western exploiters’ greed.
Jung as a Shaman
Daniel Noel, the author of The Soul of Shamanism, and the source of the above eight features, felt that C.G. Jung was “the closest thing to a Western shaman the modern age has seen.” From Jung’s biography, as well as insights about him from his friends and co-workers, we can identify over a dozen ways in which Jung can be regarded as a shaman.
First, we can point to his chosen career: medicine, with a specialty in the then new and denigrated field of psychiatry. In the 1890’s, when Jung had to choose his major in college, he was even then prepared to do his own thing, despite the opinions of others. He chose the healing profession and for the rest of his life he was concerned to alleviate the pain and suffering of others.
As the son of a Protestant pastor, Jung grew up infused with religion, and, as is common with children of clergy, he left religion, but never became an atheist (which he called “a stupid error”). Rather than religion, Jung recognized religio, the instinct in every person to reflect, contemplate and wonder about meaning and purpose. He was, in short, a profoundly spiritual person, and aware of the spiritual essence in everyone.
Jung was born into a family of psychics: his mother and her side of the family had several people who manifested keen mediumistic abilities, even to the point of producing ectoplasms. Jung himself was so intuitive that people felt he could read minds, and he used this beyond-normal gift in his work as a psychotherapist.
He also drew on the insights and practices of the ancient and medieval alchemists. As with most shamans, Jung had respect for ancient wisdom and cultural traditions, and when Richard Wilhelm introduced him to Chinese alchemy, Jung got deeply absorbed in it, and he resonated with the alchemists’ operating in the imaginal realm in their projections of their inner realities as they performed their laboratory experiments.
Characteristic of the Intuitive type he was, Jung had keen prospective vision. He could sense where trends in the 1930s were heading, warning of future disaster long before World War I broke out. He warned us about the dehumanization we see now, some 40 years before Donald Rumsfeld referred to soldiers (i.e. human beings) as “fungible.” He could tell from their dreams that some patients were heading into danger (warnings some of them fatally ignored).
Jung minded neither isolation nor solitude. Like other shamans, he marched to his own drummer, regardless of what other people thought, even to the point of violating norms of his conservative society (e.g. taking both Emma and Toni out in public, calling Toni his “other wife”). This led to his family being held at arms’ length by Zürich society, causing Emma to suffer, but not Carl. As for solitude, he relished it and went so far as to build his Bollingen tower as his getaway place to think and write free from others’ presence.
Jung endured the Western version of the shaman’s long apprenticeship in his many years of college, medical school, then residency under Eugen Bleuler at the Burghölzli clinic–the years when, like shamans, he trained empirically under the guidance of older, more experienced doctors. He sought out more such training after he came to the attention of the man then recognized globally as the pioneer in the field of psychiatry, Sigmund Freud. For some six years Jung corresponded and worked with Freud, until he had to break with Freud to remain true to his own values and empirically-based truths.
This break led Jung to experience professional marginalization, as Freud got all his followers to ostracize, criticize and condemn Jung and his publications. While the social isolation hurt Emma, the professional marginalization bothered Jung far more than any social opprobrium. For the rest of his life Jung had to withstand the attacks of the scientific materialists and academics stuck in rationalism.
That Jung could remain true to his brand of psychology was due in part to his deep relationship to the Self, his inner divine guidance. Jung believed in Fate, that each of us has a particular destiny and life purpose or vocation, and Jung knew he was “called” to do the work he was guided to do by his dreams and synchronicities.
When Jung created his Word Association test, at one point Ludwig Binswanger gave Jung the test, and the results indicated that Jung had four complexes–mother, father, money and power–suggesting he was neurotic, as are most people even now in our modern world. It was in part his father complex that made Jung’s break with Freud so painful: he knew he had to take back the projections he had put on Freud–a task he undertook all those nights in his study from 1912 to 1920, wrestling with the inner characters–Philemon, Salome, Izdubar and others–who appeared in his dreams and reveries, potent visions which he knew had much to teach him.
Jung’s visions after his break with Freud were not new: he had powerful visions even as a child, most notably his vision of the turd crushing the Basel cathedral when he was just 11 years old. Like many shamans, these were not easy psychic experiences to handle. As an adult, Jung came to realize how depicting these visions–producing their images on paper in vivid colors and symbols–was a healing process. When, in 2009, the Red Book was published, the world was able to see his imaging ability and how keen his artistic skill was.
Jung recognized that one archetype related to the shaman was the trickster: “There is something of the trickster in the character of the shaman and medicine-man, for he, too, often plays malicious tricks on people, …”. Jung was not above doing this at meetings of the Psychology Club, which led, in some instances, to members quitting the club. Jung had his trickster side, another facet of his shamanic character.
Finally, like all shamans, Jung revered Nature. As a child, he had grown up in Nature, playing alone most of the time in the countryside outside of Basel. Throughout his life Jung loved to be out in Nature, camping, biking, and sailing his boat on Lake Zürich. In response to letters from others asking for his advice, he would often urge them to get out into Nature, that it had healing powers, as it was “clean” and could cleanse them of the “dirt” of city life.
Conclusion
With his negative father complex, Jung did not get on well with most men, but one exception was the close relationship he had with his English translator, R.F.C. Hull. Just how close they were is hinted at in the fact that Jung allowed Hull to see and read parts of his notes made while wrestling with his daimones after his break with Freud, recorded in the Red Book. From this experience Hull came away writing to friends that Jung was a shaman–he had gone to the other side, and came back alive.
Many decades later, the scholar Daniel Noel came to the same conclusion, based not on seeing the Red Book (which had not been published at that time), but on his studies of shamanism and his reading of Jung’s works. From my forty years of immersion in Jung’s work, I too feel Jung is an example of a Western person whose life reflects the actions, values and vocation of the shaman. More on this from Kimia, who spent years studying with shamans in Peru:
Shamanism is the world’s oldest spiritual path and is not a religion. Shamanism arose out of the earth from the people 75,000 years ago all over the planet. Shamans all over the world developed the same systems without any communication with one another. In shamanism, there is no hierarchy, no dogma, no head person or pope and has thus become an enemy of traditional religions which are about control. At this time, there is a resurgence of shamanism (joined together with science) after many years of persecution. Basic tenants of shamanism include observing nature, animals, plants and the living world and learning from them through an interactive path of direct revelation.
The Worldview and Orientation of Shamans
The way shamans understand the world is fundamentally different than the Western understanding of the world because they believe the feminine is the foundation of everything in life. In the Western world, we are used to leading with our minds. For example, thinking first and setting goals then feeling abundant. In Indigenous cultures, the feminine principle comes first and leads, and the masculine follows.
Shamanism is inherently the path of holding the tension of opposites or the path of one who walks in two worlds. In shamanism, two worlds exist simultaneously at once at all times: the spirit world/non-ordinary reality and ordinary reality. The orientation of shamanism is based out of the feminine, the hidden, the void, the shadow, the unseen world and all arose out of the unseen realms and the darkness of the feminine womb. In Lakota, “washtee” is the term for ordinary reality which includes the familiar, the daytime, the known, what you can see, what is in your comfort zone, the physical dimension, and outer beauty that doesn’t necessarily contain depth. In Lakota, “Wakan” is the term for the Great Mystery, the unknowable, the nighttime, the unknown, the dangerous, the uncomfortable that places you at your edge, a place of expansion, and the place that power lies. This path acknowledges that there are many dimensions and parallel universes operating at one time, and the shamanic view is that we are multidimensional creatures operating within a larger container by traveling within to do deep inner work. In the Toltec tradition, the word “nagual” refers to the unseen energy that creates and manifests all of life, and the word “tonal” refers to the visible and seen side of a picture that encompasses the physical reality. The balance between two worlds is the basis of the shamanic path, and this path calls that one learns how to have a foot in both worlds at one time. In shamanism, moments of absolute terror are seen as opportunities for growth and opening up to the Great Mystery– these are sought out and welcomed. In order to do this, one needs stability and groundedness. If you spend too much time in one world, you are out of balance.
In many shamanic traditions, maps including the tree of life and a medicine wheel are used to map life through the four directions. One map that shamans use to access the transmission of all of the information of the earth and the sky and beyond is the tree of life. Many Indigenous peoples, including the Toltecs and the Dogan people of East Africa had a rich understanding of outer space and were able to compute the distance of the Sun, Moon, and the Pleiades down to the decimal point. They believe that we as humans are the offspring of the Sun and the sky coming together. As children of the stars, our spiritual capacity is intrinsic and we are both ethereal and angelic.
There are three dimensions of learning and knowing in universal shamanism: the upper world (future), the middle world (now), and the lower world (past). When shamans work with allies and elementals in the natural world, they are able to tap into the Great Mystery as sentient beings holding conscious awareness, harnessing power to develop a deeper relationship with the living world in a shamanic sense. Shamans have the ability to talk to Spirit in all things and find and integrate medicine from the spirit realm and integrate that into the physical dimension. Shamanism inherently holds the tension of two opposites: how to walk in two worlds at one time and how to navigate the light and the dark sides of reality.
From a shamanic perspective, the earth is our greatest ally in our place of responsibility. Part of what it means to be human is connecting with the land. Dr. Valerie Ringland explains the Indigenous world view: “An Indigenous Elder in the Amazon told me that the majority (he estimated 90%) of the thoughts that circulate in our minds are not based in our ego, but ancestral trauma… I think of ancestry in four ways: our blood and/or adoptive lineages; the lands where we work and live; the lands, cultures, and religions we sustain in a strong spiritual connection; and personal karma (past, present and future versions of ourselves/identities.” (p. 34) The Western way of thinking is more myopic and based on the individual rather than the collective. In Healing through Indigenous Wisdom Ringland states that “Indigenous science is based on sustaining our ceremonial connections with the land and elements of nature, with an underlying metaphorical understanding that all of life is sacred.”
Medicine and Shamanism
Shamans were the first healers and medicine keepers on the planet. Medicine in Latin means, “to heal.” Medicine in Greek medicine means “to give advice” and correlates with spiritual power. The Sanskrit word for medicine means “intelligence and wisdom.” Medicine is something that either makes us whole again and heals us or is poison, depending on the amount that you take. Medicine is an alchemical substance or process that turns one condition into another.
There are many different medicines. How medicine is used is also dependent on the tension of opposites. Anything can make you sick or make you well. Shamans are adept in manipulating energy and that knowledge and wisdom must be wielded for the good of all involved. How shamanic power is wielded is also dependent on the carrier of that knowledge and wisdom. The light side of shamanism entails service, healing of the people and leadership. The dark side of shamanism includes power over others and hurting people.
We are infinite spiritual beings having a human experience. Shamanism is based on the belief that everything is Spirit, and everything you touch is made of elementals. Elementals are anything you can see, touch, or imagine in the physical universe. Solar systems, planets, and animals are all made up of elements. They have the unique distinction of being able to follow directions and instructions from a place of Spirit. When we are following the directions of Spirit everything is good and we are in balance. Since we too are made of Spirit, we also have the ability to harness the power of allies and elementals which can become our allies. Shamans work with the spirit of animals when they are working with spirit guides, animals and allies, and some shamans are also adept at working with plant allies.
Is it medicine or is it poison?
There are many plants that are valued keepers of ancient information and are a major medicine. The most dangerous of the elementals and medicines are the most powerful. If something hurts you or almost kills you on the shamanic path, it could be thought of as an initiatory and life altering experience where you will then be a carrier of that medicine and frequency. Shamanism is not the path of the faint-hearted. For example, many people in the Western world have died from smoking tobacco. For many Indigenous peoples, tobacco or the spirit of tobacco is one of the greatest allies and is used in an intentional and ceremonial way. Tobacco can be thought of as the foundational plant in the Plant Arcana or the hierarchy of foundational plants that are used as allies in traditional lineages that work predominantly with plant allies. One of the most profound and intentional consciousness and healing experiences of my life was when I dieted and “studied” with the Shipibo-Conibo Indigenous peoples along the Ucayali River in the Amazon rain forest of Peru. I put the word “studied” in quotes because nothing that I witnessed was analytical, logical, left-brain oriented, or rational, however, dieting intentionally in an emotionally and spiritually centered container is a life-changing experiential process of communing deeply and intimately with the plant that lovingly and generously imbues you with its pattern and wisdom.
This work is life-changing and accelerating, but it is very serious work in that it needs a deeply held container (temenos) for the matrix of the plants to enter you. When I asked the Plant maestro about a plant, he would always reply to sit with the plant, to put your third eye on the root or the vine or the tree, and ask it to teach you. Most of the plants are ground up with water and activated by icaros, or medicine songs and are ceremonially and intentionally formed into a liquid. You always begin at the start – from a shamanic perspective poco a poco (little by little). This path is a lifelong path and not one where bigger is better, something we are used to in Western society. The physical body doesn’t always necessarily feel the planet because it is digested but the care of the maestro allows it to enter the greater intelligence and penetrate the emotional body. It is essential that one is committed to a container that respects the plants, and you are making a commitment to the plant teacher and to learn directly from the plants. Communication with that plant opens up in a few days, although they are not necessarily psychoactive. For example, pinons open up your intuition. Shamans who have a deep relationship with pinons are adept at finding lost objects and even remote viewing. Pinons are a more feminine plant and work with the intuition and balances the masculine principle. Tobacco is a more masculine plant and works with the fields of protection, and builds a permanent internal energetic field of their inner strength and clears previous traumas.
How People Become Shamans & Areas of Study in Shamanism
How do people become shamans? There are four general paths that outline the destiny of one becoming a shaman. Shamanism runs in the family and traditions and teachings are passed down through ceremony and the word. At times, a person is born and a number of weird events happen, or one barely survives from a traumatic event, or is born with an anomaly and becomes a potential shaman. At times, somebody would really feel like shamanism is their mission in life, and they would ask a shaman if they could train with them. Lastly, somebody could be attacked by lightning or by an animal, and that would begin their life training as a shaman.
There are seven main areas of study in shamanism: healing, ceremony, art, storytelling, warrior shaman aspect, warrior chiefs, and men or women of knowledge. Some shamans become experts in one area, but the more enlightened and advanced hold the capacity in all seven different areas of study.
- Shamans learn to heal and take care of the people in practical and pragmatic ways, including herbalism, setting bones, relieving pain, and advising others.
- “Everything that exists is trying to unify itself with the whole. All ceremony exists to unify, to bring together, to bring into oneness–but within that oneness is the diversity of all that is.” Shamans learn how to perform ceremonies for the peoples and the communities. Ceremonies are important rituals and support the beginnings and endings of things. In my experience, ceremony is beneficial in: pulling in support, setting intentions, gathering energy, clearing unforeseen obstacles, moving into deep relationship with Spirit, collecting energy back, agreement or commitment, life changes, moving locations or homes, and being witnessed by community.
- Shamans are creatives and artists and create beautiful art and ceremonial pieces, including shamanic tools, amulets, feathers, and paintings. Shamanic art includes singing, dancing, and icaros or healing sounds, songs and frequencies.
- Storytelling and teaching through humor, entertainment and passed-down oral traditions are some of the key aspects of the shamanic path. “These stories are sacred and their telling is a ceremony. They were never to be written down in their exact form.” (Rael, 24).
- Warrior shamans are like the samurai in Japan and are skilled in fighting. A person dedicated to the path of self-analysis and shadow work shares the qualities of a shamanic warrior or one who fights demons in themselves or others. In order to do this, fear must be eradicated and one must exude courage and become trained and skilled at mastery of mind.
- Warrior chiefs: emperors of China were all trained shamans and chiefs lead with courage, valor and a direct capacity to be guided by Spirit.
- Shamans were and always have been women and men of knowledge or someone who seeks knowledge, study, and has learned a lot of different things. They are teachers of life and multifaceted in this ample knowledge.
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