Sue Mehrtens is the author of this and all the other blog essays on this site. The opinions expressed in these essays are her own and do not necessarily reflect the views or opinions of other Jungian Center faculty or Board members. Honesty, as well as professional courtesy, require that you give proper attribution to the author if you post this essay elsewhere.
In Defense of Jung:
Ahistoricity, Feminism, Racism, and the American Temperament
“…our historians can no longer make do with the traditional procedures in evaluating and explaining the developments that have overtaken Europe… but must admit that psychological and psychopathological factors are beginning to widen the horizons of historiography in an alarming way.” Jung (1958)[1]
“… we should have a much more living sense of history. If our consciousness were not of today only, but had historical continuity, we should be reminded of similar transformations of the gods in Greek philosophy, and this might dispose us to be more critical of our present philosophical assumptions. We are, however, effectively prevented from indulging in such reflections by the spirit of the age. History, for it, is a mere arsenal of convenient arguments that enables us, on occasion, to say: “Why, even old Aristotle knew that.” This being so, we must ask ourselves how the spirit of the age attains such uncanny power.”
Jung (1931)[2]
“The relation of the individual to his fantasy is very largely conditioned by his relation to the unconscious in general, and this in turn is conditioned in particular by the spirit of the age.” Jung (1920)[3]
“… it seems to me especially important for any broad-based culture to have a regard for history in the widest sense of the word…. a well-balanced judgment requires a firm standpoint, and this in turn can only rest on a sound knowledge of what has been.” Jung (1909)[4]
“… it is of the greatest therapeutic value if one can demonstrate to them [Jung’s patients] the historicity of their apparently unique and unassimilable experiences. … and show my patient his terrifying fantasy in the form in which it appeared 400 years ago. This has a calming effect, because the patient then sees that he is not alone in a strange world which nobody understands, but is part of the great stream of human history, …” Jung (1945)[5]
“Consider for a moment what it means to grant the right of existence to what is unreasonable, senseless, and evil! Yet it is just this that the modern man insists upon. He … casts history aside. He wants to break with tradition so that he can experiment with his life and determine what value and meaning things have in themselves, apart from traditional presuppositions.” Jung (1932)[6]
“… you are the same as the Negro or the Chinese or whoever you live with, you are all just human beings. In the collective unconscious you are the same as a man of another race, you have the same archetypes, just as you have, like him, eyes, a heart, a liver, and so on. It does not matter that his skin is black.”
Jung (1935)[7]
“The psychology of the unconscious does not lend itself to popular treatment. It is too easily misunderstood … one needs to know how we can be influenced through the unconscious. I can just as well speak of the primitive contents of the European unconscious. There is no critical slur in these things. Indeed, for a wide-awake person, the primitive contents may often prove to be a source of renewal. The American unconscious is highly interesting, because it contains more varied elements and has a higher tension, owing to the melting-pot and the transplantation to a primitive soil, which caused a break in the traditional background of the Europeans who became Americans. On the one hand, Americans are in a way more highly civilized than Europeans, and on the other hand their wellspring of life energy reaches greater depths. The American unconscious contains an immense number of possibilities.” Jung (1949)[8]
“Just as the colored man lives in your cities and even within your houses, so also he lives under your skin, subconsciously. Naturally it works both ways. Just as every Jew has a Christ complex, so every Negro has a white complex and every American a Negro complex. As a rule the colored man would give anything to change his skin, and the white man hates to admit that he has been touched by the black.” Jung (1930)[9]
Jung on History
As the above quotes indicate, Jung had high regard for history, historiography (the writing of history) and historicity (the awareness of the quality and character of the past, of previous ages and their particular spirit). Jung recognized how the relatively new discipline of psychology was influencing historians, leading some to begin to write “psychohistory”[10] and to consider “psychological and psychopathological factors”[11] in their studies of historical figures and periods. But only some historians. In general Jung decried the ahistoricity of his era, a situation that has only gotten worse in the 58 years since Jung died.[12] Why did Jung feel history was important?
If we, as a society, had a high “regard for history in the widest sense of the word,”[13] we would be more equipped to make “well-balanced”[14] judgments, which Jung recognized rest on “firm standpoints.”[15] But such solid foundations “can only rest on a sound knowledge of what has been,”[16] i.e. on a thorough understanding of how earlier societies grappled with the challenges inherent in politics, economics and social systems. This need for historical training is especially keen in our common law system,[17] with its reliance on precedent, i.e. how earlier courts decided similar cases.
In Jung’s own field of psychology, history frequently proved useful in his consulting room:
“… not a few of my patients have openly confessed their fear of … autonomous development of their psychic contents. In these cases it is of the greatest therapeutic value if one can demonstrate to them the historicity of their apparently unique and unassimilable experiences. When a patient begins to feel the inescapable nature of his inner development, he may easily be overcome by a panic fear that he is slipping helplessly into some kind of madness he can no longer understand. More than once I have had to reach for a book on my shelves, bring down an old alchemist, and show my patient his terrifying fantasy in the form in which it appeared 400 years ago. This has a calming effect, because the patient then sees that he is not alone in a strange world which nobody understands, but is part of the great stream of human history, which has experienced countless times the very things that he regards as a pathological proof of his craziness.”[18]
Jung appreciated history and the historicity such appreciation can provide. As a result, he was aware of how archetypes (i.e. “autonomous developments”) transcend time. So he could show his patients examples from 15th century alchemical texts that had the same “terrifying fantasy” as his 20th century patient reported. In my analysis, I experienced this also, and, like Jung’s patients, I too found it very comforting.
Jung understood that our having a “living sense of history”[19] can provide us with an awareness of “historical continuity”–an awareness that can help us “to be more critical of our present philosophical assumptions.”[20] More than just philosophical assumptions: If we had more appreciation of the value of history we could be far sharper in our thinking and quicker to recognize “fake news” and “alternative facts” for the rubbish they are.
We would also be more likely to recognize just how gravely current politicians around the world are subverting democratic processes,[21] a situation that would appall Jung if he were alive today. But, while appalled, he would not be surprised. In his lecture “Psychotherapists or the Clergy,”[22] Jung warned his audience of what can result if a society becomes unmoored from history: It permits “what is unreasonable, senseless, and evil”[23] to exist. We certainly see this occurring in our world now.
Given the stress Jung put on the collective unconscious, he was aware of how the “spirit of the age” varied from era to era, and how this collective geist had “such uncanny power”[24] over the minds, attitudes, and beliefs of those living at the time. He recognized how every era has a certain influence over humanity, because he knew the value of history.
How different is our American consciousness! Henry Ford summed up the typical American attitude toward history when he declared “History is more or less bunk.”[25] And the result of our disparagement of history is widespread ahistoricity–a profound lack of awareness of how the spirit of an age can color or influence what the people of that era think, feel and do. I was made aware of our lack of a “living sense of history”[26] recently when, from two different directions, students took Jung to task.
Jung onWomen
In one case, a woman criticized Jung for what she felt was his patriarchal attitudes and sexism. His description of the animus, in particular, seemed to her to be far too limited and he didn’t seem to be aware of feminism at all.
My response to this was to remind my student that Jung was a man of his time and his culture. Born in the German-speaking part of Switzerland in 1875,[27] Jung was raised in a culture in which women’s lives were highly circumscribed. The Swiss countryside in the late 19th century barely heard of the suffrage movement going on in Britain and the United States. There was no talk of feminism. I ventured to suggest to the student that the Swiss probably didn’t even have a German word for “feminism” or “feminist” at that time and place.
As Jung grew up he was surrounded by women[28]–his mother, sister, and aunts–who conformed to the Swiss German ideal of kinder, kirche und kuche,[29] none of them offering another model that might have broken the mold of women’s proper place. Then Jung went to the gymnasium in Basel (a more sophisticated place than his rural home village), where he probably was exposed to more of the world news, but his Swiss culture still insulated him from most feminist arguments, and this was true over the course of his whole life: It came as a shock to my student to be told that Swiss women got the vote (on the national level) only in 1971,[30] and, in some cantonal elections it was only in 1991 that women were enfranchised![31] Jung lived in a very conservative country!
Despite the conservatism of his culture, Jung evolved with regard to women, at least to a degree. Over his 86 years of life he became very supportive of women who joined him in creating the Jung Institute (e.g. Jolande Jacobi, Marie Louise von Franz),[32] and he opened new horizons for many of the women who analyzed with him (e.g. Jane Wheelwright, Hilde Kirsch, Barbara Hannah).[33] Once their children were grown, Jung encouraged his wife Emma in her intellectual endeavors (e.g. her Animus & Anima and The Grail Legend),[34] and he allowed his daughter Gert to teach at the Institute (but he refused her plea to go to college).[35] As Jung recognized, we all are subject to the “uncanny power” of the spirit of the age, even geniuses like Jung.
Jung on Race
The other criticism of Jung came from a student who felt Jung was racist, based on his use of language and his remarks about Africans and African Americans, whom Jung called “Negroes.”[36] In his use of the term “Negro” Jung was not being derogatory: His African American contemporaries used this term too, e.g. Alain Locke, Langston Hughes.[37] Word usage evolves; Jung was using the term that was in common usage in his day.
Some months ago a friend sent me several books on white privilege, white fragility and whiteness[38]–books she had read as part of a reading group. When I gave the books a cursory examination, it quickly became obvious that I was being presented with a major opportunity to confront an aspect of my shadow that I have never really thought about, or encountered, before.
So I immersed myself in several dozen books on African American history, biographies, autobiographies, guidebooks on how to talk about race, and memoirs of people who have “wakened up” to their whiteness.[39] As I expected, this proved to be a humiliating, excruciating process, as shadow work always is. At the end, I created a course for the Jungian Center to provide our students (most of whom do not have the time to read multiple books) with the chance to do similar shadow work. Anticipating the questions our students are likely to ask–What did Jung think of African Americans, and did he think they had any impact on American culture?–I then turned to Jung’s works, and discovered that he had quite a bit to say on this topic. What did Jung have to say about American Negroes?
Study the 40 citations in Jung’s work that mention Negroes,[40] and it is obvious that Jung had keen appreciation for the gifts of African Americans and the contributions they have made to American culture, e.g. in how we laugh, walk, dance, express our feelings, and in our music.[41]
In multiple places[42] Jung notes his 1912 trip to the United States, during which he specifically traveled to St. Elizabeth’s Hospital in Washington D.C., where the director, Dr. William Alanson White, gave him permission to examine some Negro patients.[43] Jung wanted to know if his hypothesis of the collective unconscious was accurate, i.e. would persons of different backgrounds, cultures, races and origins have dream contents similar to what he had found in his European patients. Jung asked “… are these collective patterns racially inherited, or are they “a priori categories of imagination,” as two Frenchman, Hubert and Mauss, quite independently of my own work, have called them.”[44]
Jung interviewed several patients, and a dream of one patient supported Jung’s idea that archetypes (“collective patterns”) are universal:
“A Negro told me a dream in which occurred the figure of a man crucified on a wheel. I will not mention the whole dream because it does not matter. It contained of course its personal meaning as well as allusions to impersonal ideas, but I picked out only that one motif. He was a very uneducated Negro from the South and not particularly intelligent. It would have been most probable, given the well-known religious character of the Negroes, that he should dream of a man crucified on a cross. The cross would have been a personal acquisition. But it is rather improbable that he should dream of the man crucified on a wheel. That is a very uncommon image. Of course I cannot prove to you that by some curious chance the Negro had not seen a picture or heard something of the sort and then dreamt about it; but if he had not had any model for this idea it would be an archetypal image, because the crucifixion on the wheel is a mythological motif. … In the dream of the Negro, the man on the wheel is a repetition of the Greek mythological motif of Ixion, who, on account of his offense against men and the gods, was fastened by Zeus upon an incessantly turning wheel. I give you this example of a mythological motif in a dream merely in order to convey to you an idea of the collective unconscious. One single example is of course no conclusive proof. But one cannot very well assume that this Negro had studied Greek mythology, and it is improbable that he had seen any representation of Greek mythological figures. Furthermore, figures of Ixion are pretty rare.”[45]
This research on the archetypes on our collective unconscious led Jung to conclude that there is no real difference among the races:
“… you are the same as the Negro or the Chinese or whoever you live with, you are all just human beings. In the collective unconscious you are the same as a man of another race, you have the same archetypes, just as you have, like him, eyes, a heart, a liver, and so on. It does not matter that his skin is black.”[46]
Jung is clear that we are not identical: we all have different personal histories, and our family heritages may reflect different “historical layers,”[47] but, as human beings, we each share the inherited wisdom of humanity lodged in our collective unconscious.
Having traveled extensively around America on his six trips to the United States,[48] Jung knew that Negroes suffered discrimination (Jung was in the U.S. during the Jim Crow era,[49] his first trip being in 1909, his last in 1936). He also recognized “the well-known religious character of the Negroes.”[50] He felt “the Negro is extraordinarily religious,”[51] and “his concepts of God and Christ are very concrete.”[52] While it is unlikely that Jung attended a service in a Negro church, he certainly was aware that the forms of expression were different from the staid practices of white churches. Jung was also aware that as much as Negroes have adapted to the whites, so white American culture has been influenced by the Negro.
Jung on the Impact Negroes Have Had on American Culture
The great 19th century philosopher Ralph Waldo Emerson regarded the American mind “as a racially formed Mind in which the African elements were predominant in the way popular American cultured formed.”[53] Jung took this further, seeing the influence of Negroes in more than just popular culture:
“The emotional way an American expresses himself, especially the way he laughs, can best be studied in the illustrated supplements of the American papers: the inimitable Teddy Roosevelt laugh is found in its primordial form in the American Negro. The peculiar walk with loose joints, or the swinging of the hips so frequently observed in Americans, also comes from the Negro. American music draws its main inspiration from the Negro, and so does the dance. The expression of religious feeling, the revival meetings, the Holy Rollers and other abnormalities are strongly influenced by the Negro, and the famous American naïveté, in its charming as well as its more unpleasant form,,,,”[54]
reflected, Jung felt, how the Negro had “got into the American.”[55] Jung could observe this perhaps because he was a European: Just as the fish doesn’t recognize water, so we usually fail to spot the distinguishing features of our culture. How we talk, walk, laugh, dance, worship, and respond to life events–all reflect “the wide influence of the Negro on the general character of the people.”[56]
Jung also spotted another aspect of American life which most Americans fail to see: the impact of the “primitive contents”[57] that are part of our American consciousness. It is important here to state that Jung did not use the term “primitive” in a negative way. As he told Carol Baumann, one of his students, “There is no critical slur in these things.”[58] On the contrary,
“… for a wide-awake person, the primitive contents may often prove to be a source of renewal. The American unconscious is highly interesting, because it contains more varied elements and has a higher tension, owing to the melting-pot and the transplantation to a primitive soil, which caused a break in the traditional background of the Europeans who became Americans. On the other hand, Americans are in a way more highly civilized than Europeans, and on the other hand their wellspring of life energy reaches greater depths. The American unconscious contains an immense number of possibilities.”[59]
Our diversity of population affords us a tension (which certain stupid political leaders are vitiating in their castigations of immigrants),[60] but Jung recognized it is a key source of our entrepreneurial spirit and enterprising attitude. How so?
“Tension” is a central theme in Jung’s psychology. He repeatedly urged his students to “hold the tension of opposites” (even going so far as to tell Barbara Hannah that this could be what could avert a nuclear war),[61] and he was always on the lookout for pairs of opposites, which he felt we could find everywhere.[62] The tension of opposites makes possible movement, resolution (the tertium non datur or “third thing” which the psyche produces to reconcile the opposition),[63] and growth. In our American makeup, Jung felt
“there is a discrepancy between conscious and unconscious that is not found in the European, a tension between an extremely high conscious level of culture and an unconscious primitivity. This tension forms a psychic potential which endows the American with an indomitable spirit of enterprise and an enviable enthusiasm which we in Europe do not know.”[64]
So the presence of the “colored man”[65] in America has opened us to more “possibilities” than European cultures have.
To these positives Jung balanced negatives (to be true to his bipolar philosophy). So while the Negro “lives under [our] skin,”[66] we also live under his, and the result is complex:
“Just as every Jew has a Christ complex, so every Negro has a white complex and every American a Negro complex. As a rule the colored man would give anything to change his skin, and the white man hates to admit that he has been touched by the black.”[67]
This surely is true for the white supremacists and racists, who would be shocked (or worse) by Jung’s interpretation of Southern chivalry, which he felt “is a reaction against its [the South’s] instinctive desire to imitate the Negro.”[68] Here we see how Jung thought in pairs, regarding cruelty and chivalry as “another pair of opposites.”[69]
Jung felt segregation and discrimination had obvious negative impact on the lives of Negroes, but it also had an equally negative impact on the unconsciousness of whites: “In the South, where they [Negroes] are not given opportunities equal to the white race, their influence is very great. They are really in control.”[70] Really? Jung recognized that a lot of white Southerners’ energy goes into trying to keep the Negro down, oppressed by, e.g. gerrymandering, voter suppression, the activities of white Citizen Councils,[71] de facto forms of segregation etc.
Jung offers us significant insights into our American temperament and culture: How our nation owes so much of its vibrancy and entrepreneurial spirit to the presence of African Americans and immigrants, how the tension of opposites resulting from the diversity of our population affords us a dynamism lacking in European cultures, and how
we are ahistorical and, as a result, prone to criticize writers from other eras for their lack of feminist awareness or racial sensitivity.
As our current media are showing us, we all are racists,[72] and it is ahistorical to expect a European man of the late 19th century to adhere to the standards of 21st-century America. Times change and the collective consciousness evolves. The spirit of our age reflects the evolution of our culture in the 58 years since Jung died, and we should not criticize Jung for being a man of his time.
Bibliography
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Bair, Deirdre (2003), Jung: A Biography. New York: Little, Brown & Co.
Barzun, Jacques (1974), Clio and the Doctors: Psycho-History, Quanto-History & History. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Brown, Claude (1965), Manchild in the Promised Land: A Modern Classic of the Black Experience. New York: New American Library.
Coates, Ta-Nehisi (2015), Between the World and Me. New York: Spiegel & Grau.
De Veaux, Alexis (2004), Warrior Poet: A Biography of Audre Lorde. New York: W.W. Norton.
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Diangelo, Robin (2018), White Fragility. Boston: Beacon Press.
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Gates, Henry Louis, Jr. (2019) Stony the Road: Reconstruction, White Supremacy, and the Rise of Jim Crow. New York: Penguin Press.
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Hannah, Barbara (1976), Jung: His Life and Work, A Biographical Memoir. New York: G.P. Putnam.
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________ & Marie-Louise von Franz (1970), The Grail Legend. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
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McKesson, Deray (2018), On the Other Side of Freedom. New York: Viking.
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[1] Collected Works 10 ¶617. Hereafter Collected Works will be abbreviated CW.
[2] CW 8 ¶655.
[3] CW 6 ¶80.
[4] CW 17 ¶s250-251
[5] CW 13 ¶325.
[6] CW 11 ¶528.
[7] Collected Works 18 ¶93. Hereafter Collected Works will be abbreviated CW.
[8] Jung (1977), 195-6.
[9] CW 10 ¶963. It is important to remember that Jung was a man of his time, nationality, and heritage.
[10] Cf. e.g. Erikson (1962) and Barzun (1974).
[11] CW 10 ¶617.
[12] He died on June 6, 1961; Bair (2003), 623.
[13] CW 17 ¶250.
[14] Ibid.
[15] Ibid.
[16] Ibid.
[17] I.e. the legal system that evolved from the twelfth-century reforms of the English kind Henry II down to our own day, as the basis of law in the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, as well as the United Kingdom.
[18] CW 13 ¶325.
[19] CW 8 ¶655.
[20] Ibid.
[21] The Editorial Board (2019), R1,11; cf. Perrigo (2019), 9.
[22] CW 11 ¶s 488-538.
[23] CW 11 ¶528.
[24] CW 8 ¶655.
[25] Ford said this in an interview with Charles N. Wheeler, Chicago Tribune (May 26, 1916); Barlett’s Familiar Quotations, 714.
[26] CW 8 ¶655.
[27] In Kesswil, a small parish near Basel.
[28] Jung’s mother, Emilie Preiswerk Jung, died in 1923, when Jung was 48; his sister, Johanna Gertrud, was born in 1884, when Jung was 9 years old; she died in 1935, when Jung was 60. His mother’s sister, Marie-Sophia Fröhlich, saved the family from destitution after Jung’s father died in 1896. Bair (2003), 17,18,29, 38,40,409.
[29] “Children, church and cooking” were the three traditional realms of the German hausfrau.
[30] https://lenews.ch/2017/11/25/Swiss-fact-some-Swiss-women-had-to-wait-until-1991-to-vote/
[31] Ibid.
[32] Anthony (1990), 55-69.
[33] Ibid., 80-87; Healy (2017), 241.
[34] Bair (2003), 78. Cf. Jung (1957) and Jung & von Franz (1970).
[35] Bair (2003), 318, 533.
[36] Cf. CW 10 ¶s95,96,963, and CW 18 ¶s72,81,93,94,1285, and Jung (1977), 14.
[37] Ferguson (2008), 69,78-85.
[38] Diangerlo (2018), Irving (2014), Landrieu (2018) and Ward (2016); see the bibliography supra for full publishing information.
[39] All of these books are listed in the bibliography supra.
[40] CW 5 ¶154 & note; CW 6 ¶s46, 747 & note, 851,963; CW 7 ¶s323,374; CW 8 ¶94,669; CW 9i ¶25; CW 9ii ¶s293,329; CW 10 ¶s95,99,103,249,962-963,965-967; CW 11 ¶31,200; CW 13 ¶76; CW 17 ¶s104,300; CW 18 ¶s15,72,79,81-82,93-94,262,275,341,1285 & note.
[41] CW 10 ¶95.
[42] CW 5 ¶154 & note; CW 6 ¶747; CW 10 ¶99; CW 18 ¶79; Jung (1977), 434.
[43] CW 5 ¶154, note 52.
[44] CW 18 ¶81.
[45] Ibid. ¶82.
[46] Ibid. ¶93.
[47] Ibid.
[48] In 1909,1910,1912,1913,1924 & 1936; Bair (2003), 153,184,229,269,330 & 417, respectively.
[49] See Gates (2019) for a vivid picture of this horrible era.
[50] CW 18 ¶81.
[51] Ibid. ¶1285.
[52] Ibid.
[53] Stewart (2018), 596.
[54] CW 10 ¶95.
[55] CW 18 ¶94.
[56] CW 10 ¶96.
[57] Jung (1977), 195-196.
[58] Ibid.
[59] Ibid.
[60] E.g. Donald Trump, Nigel Farage, Viktor Orban.
[61] Hannah (1976), 129.
[62] Jung (1977), 13.
[63] CW 6 ¶169.
[64] CW 10 ¶103.
[65] Ibid. ¶963.
[66] Ibid.
[67] Ibid.
[68] Jung (1977), 14.
[69] Ibid., 15-16.
[70] Ibid.
[71] For more on this Southern invention to enforce the Jim Crow system, see Tyson (2017), 94-102.
[72] Cf. Irving (2014) and Diangelo (2018).
